Teaching Language to Children With Autism Or Other Developmental Disabilities, (Mark Sundberg and James Partington, 1998)

At present it is not exactly clear why some children fail to acquire language. However, it is clear that if language does not develop in a timely manner it is reasonable to expect that various forms of negative or inappropriate behaviors will . . . come to function as the child’s main form of communication (Sundberg & Partington, 1998)

Sundberg and Partington base their approach directly on B.F. Skinner’s analysis of verbal behavior that was published in 1957. Skinner believed that language is a result of operant conditioning, similar to other learned behavior. Children learn to speak through selection by consequences (operant conditioning). But verbal behavior, according to Skinner, requires a separate analysis. With verbal behavior, the child does not operate directly on his environment. The behavior of others in a verbal community is an additional event that must be considered (Skinner, 1957 cited on B.F. Skinner Foundation Web Site).
Verbal behavior (VB) differs from other ABA models in it that it is focused primarily on Skinner’s analysis of language as a learned skill. Skinner proposed that language is behavior that is primarily caused by environmental variables such as reinforcement, motivation, extinction and punishment. This view of language differs substantially from others that assume language is primarily caused by cognitive or biological variables (Sundberg & Partington, 1998).
With the VB model, language (i.e. verbal behavior) is analyzed into formal and functional properties. Formal properties include grammar, syntax, articulation, pitch, etc. Functional properties of language are the stimulus for the behavior, the motivation for it and the consequences that control the response. Using these concepts, language dysfunction can be targeted very specifically and programs are designed to teach verbal behavior in its functional context. VB is an intensive treatment model that attempts to develop language as rapidly as possible using highly structured direct teaching and intensive natural environment teaching.
Teaching Format
In the current edition of their verbal behavior training manual, Teaching Language to Children . . . Sundberg and Partington stress the need for both intensive, one to one discrete trial teaching (DTT) combined with natural environment training (NET), which focuses on the child's immediate interests as a guide for language instruction. The advantages and disadvantages of each method are discussed at length in their manual (pages 255-271). Sundberg and Partington conclude that the balance between DTT and NET may change frequently during the language acquisition process, but training should always include both approaches (Sundberg and Partington, 1998: 270).
In general, DTT is recommended as the primary instructional method for:

• academic activities
• specific skill development
• structured learning of academic skills in later elementary classrooms

NET is considered more effective for teaching:

• early requesting
• compliance
• instructional control
• pairing
• observational learning

A combination of both is most effective when teaching:

• making requests
• labeling
• receptive language
• motor imitation
• verbal imitation
• early conversational skills

Comprehensive Language Assessment as a Basis of Individualized Curriculum
Sundberg and Parting ton have developed a comprehensive language assessment to identify the deficits that are present in the child and to guide the development of an appropriate language intervention program for the child. The Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills (ABLLS) is also a valuable tool for determining IEP (Individualized Educational Placement) objectives. It is designed to be used by parents and teachers. With it, key developmental skills are evaluated under several general headings.
Basic Learner Skills

1. Cooperation and reinforcer effectiveness
2. Visual performance
3. Receptive language
4. Imitation
5. Vocal imitation
6. Requests
7. Labeling
8. Intraverbals (Early conversation)
9. Spontaneous vocalizations
10. Syntax and grammar
11. Play/leisure skills
12. Social interaction skills
13. Group instruction
14. Classroom routines
15. Generalized responding
Academic Skills
16. Reading
17. Math
18. Writing
19. Spelling
Self Help Skills
20. Dressing
21. Eating skills
22. Grooming
23. Toileting
Motor Skills
24. Gross motor skills
25. Fine motor skills

(Sundberg and Partington, 1998)

The ABLLS separates specific skills into various phases of development. Parents or teachers can assess the present level of the child at each stage. Goals and curriculum are developed to emphasize these unaccomplished steps. They are then taught systematically using basic behavioral techniques in both DTT and NET settings.
Behavior Reduction
Sundberg and Partington propose that the majority of negative behavior issues, tantrums, social withdrawal, self-stimulation, etc. are directly related to dysfunctional language. They suggest that eliminating an undesired behavior that is linked to a defective verbal repertoire without considering the language link is an example of the mistake of treating the symptom and not the cause. Language training is an essential part of behavior reduction programs (Sundberg & Partington, 1998).
Direct Instruction
Discrete trials in verbal behavior are structured differently than in typical DTT models.
Sessions are less scripted and there is less differentiation between teaching programs than in other DTT models. The overall program is highly structured but the treatment sessions are not. Typically, data is not taken during teaching sessions, so the teacher can spend more time engaging the child. Sessions should be creative and flexible while targeting curriculum programs. A high level of positive reinforcement is maintained throughout (errorless) teaching. High priority is placed on making learning fun.
Other differences include the pace of instruction, concept integration (i.e. not adhering to sets of trials), and the use of receptive language training as a direct bridge to expressive language.
Augmentative Communication
While speech is the primary goal, those children who do not learn to speak must have an alternative communication system. Sundberg & Partington provide a lengthy discussion of augmentative communication systems and conclude that American Sign Language is the preferred method with PECS a close second
Treatment Team and Training
VB training is a very precise and sophisticated model of intervention. A high level of training and ongoing support and supervision through qualified case managers is required for people working with children in VB programs. The team should be trained in ABA and VB techniques. They should also be trained in augmentative communication systems when appropriate.
Parents are active members of the treatment team, facilitating development and use of skills in home and community settings. Parents need to know what the child is currently learning. Additionally, parents should be trained in the teaching skills they wish to know.
The set of manuals by Sundberg and Partington, Teaching Language to Children with Autism Or Other Developmental Disabilities and The Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills present materials and training to conduct a comprehensive language assessment of the child, used to direct an individualized curriculum for the child. A language curriculum and teaching techniques are provided along with data systems and tracking forms. Guidelines to assist with program selection (home or school-based) are also included, as are options for augmentative communication systems.